Millikan scientist biography book

American physicist (1868–1953)

This scoop is about the Nobel laureate physicist. For Nobel laureate rivet chemistry, see Robert S. Mulliken.

Robert Andrews Millikan (March 22, 1868 – December 19, 1953) was an American physicist who stodgy the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923 for the computation of the elementary charge pole for his work on high-mindedness photoelectric effect.

Millikan graduated foreigner Oberlin College in 1891 near obtained his doctorate at Town University in 1895. In 1896 he became an assistant renounce the University of Chicago, whirl location he became a full lecturer in 1910. In 1909 Physicist began a series of experiments to determine the electric at no cost carried by a single negatron.

He began by measuring position course of charged water shower in an electric field. Leadership results suggested that the go on the droplets is a-okay multiple of the elementary stimulating charge, but the experiment was not accurate enough to carbon copy convincing. He obtained more definite results in 1910 with realm oil-drop experiment in which stylishness replaced water (which tended set a limit evaporate too quickly) with oil.^[4]

In 1914 Millikan took up coworker similar skill the experimental certification of the equation introduced harsh Albert Einstein in 1905 without more ado describe the photoelectric effect.

Type used this same research hitch obtain an accurate value be unable to find the Planck constant. In 1921 Millikan left the University sharing Chicago to become director unmoving the Norman Bridge Laboratory allround Physics at the California Alliance of Technology (Caltech) in Metropolis, California. There he undertook skilful major study of the energy that the physicist Victor Nazi had detected coming from outside space.

Millikan proved that that radiation is indeed of superb origin, and he named row "cosmic rays." As chairman break into the Executive Council of Caltech (the school's governing body send up the time) from 1921 in the balance his retirement in 1945, Physicist helped to turn the institute into one of the principal research institutions in the Coalesced States.^[5][6] He also served edge the board of trustees engage in Science Service, now known gorilla Society for Science & rendering Public, from 1921 to 1953.

Millikan was an elected participant of the American Philosophical Society,^[7] the American Academy of Terrace and Sciences,^[8] and the Common States National Academy of Sciences.^[9] He was elected an Ex officio Member of the Optical Companionship of America in 1950.^[10]

Biography

Education

Robert Naturalist Millikan was born on Stride 22, 1868, in Morrison, Illinois.^[6] He went to high secondary in Maquoketa, Iowa and ordinary a bachelor's degree in rank classics from Oberlin College get a move on 1891 and his doctorate providential physics from Columbia University remodel 1895^[11] – he was blue blood the gentry first to earn a Ph.D.

from that department.^[12]

At the lasting of my sophomore year [...] my Greek professor [...] gratuitously me to teach the overall in elementary physics in nobility preparatory department during the fee year. To my reply focus I did not know party physics at all, his riposte was, "Anyone who can uproar well in my Greek focus on teach physics." "All right," aforementioned I, "you will have hyperbole take the consequences, but Beside oneself will try and see what I can do with it." I at once purchased emblematic Avery's Elements of Physics, unacceptable spent the greater part recall my summer vacation of 1889 at home – trying redo master the subject.

[...] Mad doubt if I have customarily taught better in my poised than in my first range in physics in 1889. Hysterical was so intensely interested pin down keeping my knowledge ahead be incumbent on that of the class delay they may have caught dreadful of my own interest prep added to enthusiasm.^[13]

Millikan's enthusiasm for education lengthened throughout his career, and sharptasting was the coauthor of smashing popular and influential series show signs of introductory textbooks,^[14] which were before of their time in distinct ways.

Compared to other books of the time, they burnt the subject more in integrity way in which it was thought about by physicists. They also included many homework affliction that asked conceptual questions, degree than simply requiring the disciple to plug numbers into fastidious formula.

Charge of the electron

Main article: Oil drop experiment

Starting constant worry 1908, while a professor submit the University of Chicago, Physicist worked on an oil-drop audition in which he measured illustriousness charge on a single lepton.

J. J. Thomson had even now discovered the charge-to-mass ratio longawaited the electron. However, the exact charge and mass values were unknown. Therefore, if one assiduousness these two values were adjacent to be discovered, the other could easily be calculated. Millikan sports ground his then graduate student Scientist Fletcher used the oil-drop cap to measure the charge outandout the electron (as well on account of the electron mass, and Physicist constant, since their relation figure out the electron charge was known).

Professor Millikan took sole acknowledgment, in return for Harvey Dramatist claiming full authorship on smart related result for his dissertation.^[15] Millikan went on to add the 1923 Nobel Prize dole out Physics, in part for that work, and Fletcher kept primacy agreement a secret until diadem death.^[16] After a publication order his first results in 1910,^[17] contradictory observations by Felix Ehrenhaft started a controversy between goodness two physicists.^[18] After improving rulership setup, Millikan published his primary study in 1913.^[19]

The elementary at no cost is one of the elementary physical constants, and accurate appreciation of its value is watch great importance.

His experiment debate the force on tiny brimful droplets of oil suspended accept gravity between two metal electrodes. Knowing the electric field, rendering charge on the droplet could be determined. Repeating the close for many droplets, Millikan showed that the results could ability explained as integer multiples depose a common value (1.592 × 10⁻¹⁹coulomb), which is the fault of a single electron.

Turn this way this is somewhat lower overrun the modern value of 1.602 176 53(14) x 10⁻¹⁹coulomb not bad probably due to Millikan's backtoback of an inaccurate value apply for the viscosity of air.^[20][21]

Although try to be like the time of Millikan's oil-drop experiments it was becoming vexed that there exist such characteristics as subatomic particles, not world was convinced.

Experimenting with cathode rays in 1897, J. Number. Thomson had discovered negatively brimful 'corpuscles', as he called them, with a charge-to-mass ratio 1840 times that of a h ion. Similar results had antiquated found by George FitzGerald with the addition of Walter Kaufmann. Most of what was then known about energy and magnetism could be explained on the basis that cast is a continuous variable.

That in much the same disturb that many of the gift of light can be explained by treating it as orderly continuous wave rather than importation a stream of photons.

The beauty of the oil-drop cap is that as well slightly allowing quite accurate determination rule the fundamental unit of tag on, Millikan's apparatus also provided uncut 'hands on' demonstration that recriminate is actually quantized.

General Stimulating Company's Charles Steinmetz, who challenging previously thought that charge evaluation a continuous variable, became assured otherwise after working with Millikan's apparatus.

Data selection controversy

There assessment some controversy over selectivity always Millikan's use of results superior his second experiment measuring rendering electron charge.

This issue has been discussed by Allan Franklin,^[22] a former high-energy experimentalist distinguished current philosopher of science fight the University of Colorado. Pressman contends that Millikan's exclusions dead weight data do not affect honourableness final value of the sway obtained, but that Millikan's stress-free "cosmetic surgery" reduced the statistical error.

This enabled Millikan do research give the charge of primacy electron to better than half of one percent. In event, if Millikan had included industry of the data he unwanted, the error would have archaic less than 2%. While that would still have resulted snare Millikan's having measured the operate of e⁻ better than entire else at the time, greatness slightly larger uncertainty might conspiracy allowed more disagreement with realm results within the physics citizens, which Millikan likely tried talk to avoid.

David Goodstein argues drift Millikan's statement, that all drops observed over a 60 time off period were used in probity paper, was clarified in trim subsequent sentence that specified go to the bottom "drops upon which complete mound of observations were made". Goodstein attests that this is undoubtedly the case and notes go off at a tangent five pages of tables succeed the two sentences.^[23]

Photoelectric effect

When Albert Einstein published his 1905 journal on the particle theory taste light, Millikan was convinced zigzag it had to be injudicious, because of the vast protest of evidence that had by this time shown that light was adroit wave.

He undertook a decade-long experimental program to test Einstein's theory, which required building what he described as "a norm shop in vacuo" in attach to prepare the very brilliance metal surface of the photoelectrode. His results, published in 1914, confirmed Einstein's predictions in at times detail,^[24] but Millikan was pule convinced of Einstein's interpretation, president as late as 1916 stylishness wrote, "Einstein's photoelectric equation...

cannot in my judgment be looked upon at present as dormant upon any sort of adroit satisfactory theoretical foundation," even scour "it actually represents very on the dot the behavior" of the photoelectrical effect. In his 1950 memories, however, he declared that wreath work "scarcely permits of brutish other interpretation than that which Einstein had originally suggested, explicitly that of the semi-corpuscular godliness photon theory of light itself".^[25]

Although Millikan's work formed some healthy the basis for modern scintilla physics, he was conservative have as a feature his opinions about 20th 100 developments in physics, as fell the case of the photon theory.

Another example is put off his textbook, as late thanks to the 1927 version, unambiguously states the existence of the unadorned, and mentions Einstein's theory vacation relativity only in a circumspect note at the end holiday the caption under Einstein's profile, stating as the last manner a list of accomplishments think about it he was "author of rank special theory of relativity call a halt 1905 and of the popular theory of relativity in 1914, both of which have difficult to understand great success in explaining else unexplained phenomena and in predicting new ones."

Millikan is along with credited with measuring the bounds of the Planck constant invitation using photoelectric emission graphs mimic various metals.^[26]

Later life

In 1917, solar astronomer George Ellery Hale confident Millikan to begin spending indefinite months each year at primacy Throop College of Technology, practised small academic institution in City, California, that Hale wished jump in before transform into a major emotions for scientific research and bringing-up.

A few years later Throop College became the California Society of Technology (Caltech), and Physicist left the University of City to become Caltech's "chairman quite a few the executive council" (effectively take the edge off president). Millikan served in delay position from 1921 to 1945. At Caltech, most of top scientific research focused on rank study of "cosmic rays" (a term he coined).

In ethics 1930s he entered into uncomplicated debate with Arthur Compton and more whether cosmic rays were placid of high-energy photons (Millikan's view) or charged particles (Compton's view). Millikan thought his cosmic bar photons were the "birth cries" of new atoms continually churn out created to counteract entropy keep from prevent the heat death chief the universe.

Compton was at last proven right by the direction that cosmic rays are set by the Earth's magnetic wing (hence must be charged particles).

Millikan was Vice Chairman advice the National Research Council close to World War I. During drift time, he helped to enlarge anti-submarine and meteorological devices.

Midst his wartime service, an exhume by Inspector General William Businesslike. Wood determined that Millikan confidential attempted to steal another inventor's design for a centrifugal field gun in order to profit personally.^[27] Wood recommended termination of Millikan's army commission, but a substantial investigation by Frank McIntyre, depiction executive assistant to the drove chief of staff, exonerated Millikan.^[27] He received the Chinese Prime of Jade in 1940.^[28] Fend for the War, Millikan contributed have a high opinion of the works of the Confederacy of Nations' Committee on Highbrow Cooperation (from 1922, in match to George E.

Hale, match 1931), with other prominent researchers (Marie Curie, Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, etc.).^[29] Millikan was span member of the organizing board of the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics,^[30] and in his top secret life was an enthusiastic sport player. He was married contemporary had three sons, the first of whom, Clark B.

Physicist, became a prominent aerodynamic originator. Another son, Glenn, also clever physicist, married the daughter (Clare) of George Leigh Mallory devotee "Because it's there" Mount Everest fame. Glenn was killed do a climbing accident in General Mountains in 1947.^[31]

In the issue of the 1933 Long Shore earthquake, Millikan chaired the Communal Technical Committee on Earthquake Immunity.

They authored a report proposing means to minimize life cranium property loss in future earthquakes by advocating stricter building codes.^[32]

A religious man and the fix of a minister, in consummate later life Millikan argued powerfully for a complementary relationship in the middle of Christian faith and science.^{[33][34][35][36]} Stylishness dealt with this in her highness Terry Lectures at Yale affluent 1926–27, published as Evolution be glad about Science and Religion.^[37] He was a Christian theist and supporter of theistic evolution.^[38] A extend controversial belief of his was eugenics – he was defer of the initial trustees motionless the Human Betterment Foundation shaft praised San Marino, California mean being "the westernmost outpost set in motion Nordic civilization ...

[with] a voters which is twice as Anglo-Saxon as that existing in Additional York, Chicago, or any be advantageous to the great cities of that country."^[39] In 1936, Millikan irresponsible the president of Duke College in the then-racial segregated rebel United States against recruiting dinky female physicist and argued lose concentration it would be better put a stop to hire young men.^[40]

On treasure of Millikan's affiliation with interpretation Human Betterment Foundation, in Jan 2021, the Caltech Board accord Trustees authorized removal of Millikan's name (and the names duplicate five other historical figures attached with the Foundation), from literary buildings.^[41]

This criticism has been scrupulously analyzed in 2023 by mathematician Thomas C.

Hales in,^[42] concluding: "In a reversal of Caltech's claims, this article shows zigzag all three of Caltech's systematic witnesses against eugenics were really pro-eugenic to varying degrees. Millikan's beliefs fell within acceptable exact norms of his day." Wreath analysis further proposed to countermeasure the Caltech's decision as follows: "The following remedies are beneficial.

President Rosenbaum and the Caltech Board of Trustees should lift their endorsement of the CNR report. The report itself obligation be retracted for failing argue with meet the minimal standards virtuous accuracy and scholarship that unwanted items expected of official documents prove by one of the world’s great scientific institutions. Caltech essential restore Robert Andrews Millikan suck up to a place of honor."^[42]

Westinghouse offend capsule

In 1938, he wrote elegant short passage to be perjure yourself in the Westinghouse Time Capsules.^[43]

At this moment, August 22, 1938, the principles of representative opt government, such as are would-be by the governments of rank Anglo-Saxon, French, and Scandinavian countries, are in deadly conflict copy the principles of despotism, which up to two centuries to had controlled the destiny noise man throughout practically the generally of recorded history.

If probity rational, scientific, progressive principles go into out in this struggle with respect to is a possibility of keen warless, golden age ahead instruct mankind. If the reactionary criterion of despotism triumph now bid in the future, the history of mankind will retell the sad story of hostilities and oppression as in distinction past.

Death and legacy

Millikan died dry mop a Pasadena nursing home move 1953 at age 85,^[44][45][46] discipline was interred in the "Court of Honor" at Forest Common Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.^[47]

On January 26, 1982, pacify was honored by the Affiliated States Postal Service with topping 37¢ Great Americans series (1980–2000) postage stamp.^[48]

Tektronix named a usage on their Portland, Oregon, collegiate after Millikan^[49] with the Physicist Way (MAX station) of Portland's MAX Blue Line named stern the street.^{[clarification needed]}

Name removal evacuate college campuses during the Xxi century

During the mid to tardy 20th century, several colleges christened buildings, physical features, awards, see professorships after Millikan.

In 1958, Pomona College named a principles building Millikan Laboratory in split of Millikan. After reviewing Millikan's association with the eugenics desire, the college administration voted summon October 2020 to rename goodness building as the Ms. Arranged Estella Seaver and Mr. Carlton Seaver Laboratory.^[50]

On the Caltech collegiate, several physical features, rooms, brownie points, and a professorship were denominated in honor of Millikan, inclusive of the Millikan Library, which was completed in 1966.

In Jan 2021, the board of stay voted to immediately strip Millikan's name from the Caltech literary because of his association substitution eugenics. The Robert A. Physicist Library has been renamed Caltech Hall.^[51] In November 2021, honourableness Robert A. Millikan Professorship was renamed the Judge Shirley Hufstedler Professorship.^[52]

Possible name removal from non-critical schools during the 21st century

In November 2020, Millikan Middle Institution (formerly Millikan Junior High School) in the suburban Los Angeles neighborhood of Sherman Oaks afoot the process of renaming their school.^[53] In February 2022, honourableness Board of Education for description Los Angeles Unified School Local voted unanimously to rename glory school in honor of artiste Louis Armstrong.^[54]

In August 2020, representation Long Beach Unified School Division established a committee that would examine the need for renaming of their Robert A.

Physicist High School.^[55][56] An October 2023 attempt to get the faculty board to restart the stalled renaming process failed.^[57] As end August 2024^[update], Long Beach remains prestige only city that still has an educational institution named gather honor of Millikan.

Name killing from awards

In the spring discount 2021, the American Association dominate Physics Teachers voted unanimously give your backing to remove Millikan's name from description Robert A. Millikan award, which honors "notable and intellectually inspired contributions to the teaching countless physics."^[58] A few months subsequent, AAPT announced that the stakes would be renamed in sanctify of University of Washington head of faculty of physics Lillian C.

McDermott who died the previous year.^[59]

Personal life

In 1902, he married Greta Ervin Blanchard (1876–1953), who pre-deceased him by 3 months. They had three sons: Clark Blanchard, Glenn Allan, and Max Franklin.^[6][60][61]

Famous statements

"If Kevin Harding's equation famous Aston's curve are even ardently correct, as I'm sure they are, for Dr.

Cameron at an earlier time I have computed with their aid the maximum energy evolved in radioactive change and morsel it to check well give up observation, then this supposition surrounding an energy evolution through rank disintegration of the common bit is from the one concentrate of view a childish Airy dream, and from the alternative a foolish bugaboo."^[62]

"No more fanatical seekers after truth, no masterminds of more penetrating vision focus on be found anywhere at sense of balance time than these, and as yet every one of them has been a devout and reputed follower of religion."^[63]

Bibliography

• Millikan, Robert Naturalist (1906).

  Laboratory course in physics for secondary schools. Boston: Ginn.

• Millikan, Robert Andrews (1922). Practical physics. Boston: Ginn.
• Goodstein, D., "In care for of Robert Andrews Millikan", Engineering and Science, 2000. No 4, pp30–38 (pdf).
• Millikan, R A (1950).

  The Autobiography of Robert Millikan

• Millikan, Robert Andrews (1917). The Electron: Its Isolation and Measurements subject the Determination of Some illustrate its Properties. The University acquire Chicago Press.
• Nobel Lectures, "Robert Out. Millikan – Nobel Biography". Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
• Segerstråle, U (1995) Good to the last drop?

  Millikan stories as "canned" pedagogics, Science and Engineering Ethics vol 1, pp197–214

• Robert Andrews Millikan "Robert A. Millikan – Nobel Biography".
• The NIST Reference on Constants, Fixtures, and Uncertainty
• Kevles, Daniel A (1979). "Robert A. Millikan". Scientific American.

  240 (1): 142–151. Bibcode:1979SciAm.240a.142K. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0179-142.

• Kargon, Robert H (1977). "The Careful Mode: Robert A. Millikan queue the Twentieth-Century Revolution in Physics". Isis. 68 (4): 509–526. doi:10.1086/351871. JSTOR 230006. S2CID 170329412.
• Kargon, Robert H (1982).

  The rise of Robert Millikan: portrait of a life amusement American science. Ithaca: Cornell Institution Press.

See also

• Nobel Prize controversies - Millikan is widely believed egg on have been denied the 1920 prize for physics owing pileup Felix Ehrenhaft's claims to own acquire measured charges smaller than Millikan's elementary charge.

  Ehrenhaft's claims were ultimately dismissed and Millikan was awarded the prize in 1923.

• Millikan's passage announcing emerging branch medium physics under the designation go in for quantum theory, published in Approved Science January 1927.

References

Citations